Thailand

Metaphors are ubiquitous in human language. The metaphor detection task (MD) aims at detecting and interpreting metaphors from written language, which is crucial in natural language understanding (NLU) research. In this paper, we introduce a pre-trained Transformer-based model into MD. Our model outperforms the previous state-of-the-art models by large margins in our evaluations, with relative improvements on the F-1 score from 5.33% to 28.39%. Second, we extend MD to a classification task about the metaphoricity of an entire piece of text to make MD applicable in more general NLU scenes. Finally, we clean up the improper or outdated annotations in one of the MD benchmark datasets and re-benchmark it with our Transformer-based model. This approach could be applied to other existing MD datasets as well, since the metaphoricity annotations in these benchmark datasets may be outdated. Future research efforts are also necessary to build an up-to-date and well-annotated dataset consisting of longer and more complex texts.

IJCNLP-AACL 2021

Improvements and Extensions on Metaphor Detection

dataset re-annotation

transformer networks

metaphor detection

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP). 

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The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

workshop paper

Continuity of care is crucial to ensuring positive health outcomes for patients discharged from an inpatient hospital setting, and improved information sharing can help. To share information, caregivers write discharge notes containing action items to share with patients and their future caregivers, but these action items are easily lost due to the lengthiness of the documents. In this work, we describe our creation of a dataset of clinical action items annotated over MIMIC-III, the largest publicly available dataset of real clinical notes. This dataset, which we call CLIP, is annotated by physicians and covers 718 documents representing 100K sentences. We describe the task of extracting the action items from these documents as multi-aspect extractive summarization, with each aspect representing a type of action to be taken. We evaluate several machine learning models on this task, and show that the best models exploit in-domain language model pre-training on 59K unannotated documents, and incorporate context from neighboring sentences. We also propose an approach to pre-training data selection that allows us to explore the trade-off between size and domain-specificity of pre-training datasets for this task.

CLIP: A Dataset for Extracting Action Items for Physicians from Hospital Discharge Notes

Emojis have become ubiquitous in digital communication, due to their visual appeal as well as their ability to vividly convey human emotion, among other factors. This also leads to an increased need for systems and tools to operate on text containing emojis. In this study, we assess this support by considering test sets of tweets with emojis, based on which we perform a series of experiments investigating the ability of prominent NLP and text processing tools to adequately process them. In particular, we consider tokenization, part-of-speech tagging, dependency parsing, as well as sentiment analysis. Our findings show that many systems still have notable shortcomings when operating on text containing emojis.

Assessing Emoji Use in Modern Text Processing Tools

We propose a method for generating paraphrases of English questions that retain the original intent but use a different surface form. Our model combines a careful choice of training objective with a principled information bottleneck, to induce a latent encoding space that disentangles meaning and form. We train an encoder-decoder model to reconstruct a question from a paraphrase with the same meaning and an exemplar with the same surface form, leading to separated encoding spaces. We use a Vector-Quantized Variational Autoencoder to represent the surface form as a set of discrete latent variables, allowing us to use a classifier to select a different surface form at test time. Crucially, our method does not require access to an external source of target exemplars. Extensive experiments and a human evaluation show that we are able to generate paraphrases with a better tradeoff between semantic preservation and syntactic novelty compared to previous methods.

Factorising Meaning and Form for Intent-Preserving Paraphrasing

We present AggGen (pronounced 'again') a data-to-text model which re-introduces two explicit sentence planning stages into neural data-to-text systems: input ordering and input aggregation. In contrast to previous work using sentence planning, our model is still end-to-end: AggGen performs sentence planning at the same time as generating text by learning latent alignments (via semantic facts) between input representation and target text. Experiments on the WebNLG and E2E challenge data show that by using fact-based alignments our approach is more interpretable, expressive, robust to noise, and easier to control, while retaining the advantages of end-to-end systems in terms of fluency. Our code is available at https://github.com/XinnuoXu/AggGen.

AggGen: Ordering and Aggregating while Generating

Publicly available, large pretrained Language Models (LMs) generate text with remarkable quality, but only sequentially from left to right. As a result, they are not immediately applicable to generation tasks that break the unidirectional assumption, such as paraphrasing or text-infilling, necessitating task-specific supervision. 

In this paper, we present Reflective Decoding, a novel unsupervised algorithm that allows for direct application of unidirectional LMs to non-sequential tasks. Our 2-step approach requires no supervision or even parallel corpora, only two off-the-shelf pretrained LMs in opposite directions: forward and backward. First, in the contextualization step, we use LMs to generate ensembles of past and future contexts which collectively capture the input (e.g. the source sentence for paraphrasing). Second, in the reflection step, we condition on these ``context ensembles'', generating outputs that are compatible with them. 

Comprehensive empirical results demonstrate that Reflective Decoding outperforms strong unsupervised baselines on both paraphrasing and abductive text infilling, significantly narrowing the gap between unsupervised and supervised methods. Reflective Decoding surpasses multiple supervised baselines on various metrics including human evaluation.

Reflective Decoding: Beyond Unidirectional Generation with Off-the-Shelf Language Models

Human evaluations are typically considered the gold standard in natural language generation, but as models' fluency improves, how well can evaluators detect and judge machine-generated text? We run a study assessing non-experts' ability to distinguish between human- and machine-authored text (GPT2 and GPT3) in three domains (stories, news articles, and recipes). We find that, without training, evaluators distinguished between GPT3- and human-authored text at random chance level. We explore three approaches for quickly training evaluators to better identify GPT3-authored text (detailed instructions, annotated examples, and paired examples) and find that while evaluators' accuracy improved up to 55%, it did not significantly improve across the three domains. Given the inconsistent results across text domains and the often contradictory reasons evaluators gave for their judgments, we examine the role untrained human evaluations play in NLG evaluation and provide recommendations to NLG researchers for improving human evaluations of text generated from state-of-the-art models.

All That's 'Human' Is Not Gold: Evaluating Human Evaluation of Generated Text

Neural models excel at extracting statistical patterns from large amounts of data, but struggle to learn patterns or reason about language from only a few examples. In this work, we ask: Can we learn explicit rules that generalize well from only a few examples? We explore this question using program synthesis. We develop a synthesis model to learn phonology rules as programs in a domain-specific language. We test the ability of our models to generalize from few training examples using our new dataset of problems from the Linguistics Olympiad, a challenging set of tasks that require strong linguistic reasoning ability. In addition to being highly sample-efficient, our approach generates human-readable programs, and allows control over the generalizability of the learnt programs.

Sample-efficient Linguistic Generalizations through Program Synthesis: Experiments with Phonology Problems

Pronunciation lexicons and prediction models are a key component in several speech synthesis and recognition systems. We know that morphologically related words typically follow a fixed pattern of pronunciation which can be described by language-specific paradigms. In this work we explore how deep recurrent neural networks can be used to automatically learn and exploit this pattern to improve the pronunciation prediction quality of words related by morphological inflection. We propose two novel approaches for supplying morphological information, using the word's morphological class and its lemma, which are typically annotated in standard lexicons. We report improvements across a number of languages with varying degrees of phonological and morphological complexity, and two language families, with greater improvements for languages where the pronunciation prediction task is inherently more challenging. We also observe that combining bidirectional LSTM networks with attention mechanisms is an effective neural approach for the computational problem considered, across languages. Our approach seems particularly beneficial in the low resource setting, both by itself and in conjunction with transfer learning.

Morphology augmented pronunciation prediction

This tutorial targets researchers and practitioners who are interested in AI technologies that help machines understand natural language text, particularly real-world events described in the text. These include methods to extract the internal structures of an event regarding its protagonist(s), participant(s) and properties, as well as external structures concerning memberships, temporal and causal relations of multiple events. This tutorial will provide audience with a systematic introduction of (i) knowledge representations and acquisition of events, (ii) various methods for automated extraction, conceptualization, coreference resolution and prediction of events and their relations, (iii) induction of event processes and properties, and (iv) a wide range of NLP and commonsense understanding tasks that benefit from aforementioned techniques. We will conclude the tutorial by outlining emerging research problems in this area.

Event-Centric Natural Language Processing

Sluice resolution is a problem where a system needs to output the corresponding antecedents of wh-ellipses. The antecedents are elided contents behind the wh-words but are implicitly referred to using contexts. Previous work frames sluice resolution as question answering where this setting outperforms all its preceding works by large margins. Ellipsis and questions are referentially dependent expressions (anaphoras) and retrieving the corresponding antecedents are like answering questions to output pieces of clarifying information. However, the task is not fully solved. Therefore, we want to further investigate what makes sluice resolution differ to question answering and fill in the error gaps. We also present some results using recent state-of-the-art question answering systems which improve the previous work (86.01 to 90.39 F1).

Improvements and Extensions on Metaphor Detection

Next from IJCNLP-AACL 2021

CLIP: A Dataset for Extracting Action Items for Physicians from Hospital Discharge Notes

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